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In , Panavision helped revolutionize filmmaking with the lightweight Panaflex 35 mm movie camera. The company has introduced other cameras such as the Millennium XL and the digital video Genesis Panavision operates exclusively as a rental facility—the company owns its entire inventory, unlike most of its competitors. Panavision was established principally for the manufacture of anamorphic projection lenses to meet the growing demands of theaters showing CinemaScope films.
After it was unsqueezed by a complementary anamorphic optical element, the tank operator could see double the horizontal field of view without significant distortion. Goerz , a New York optics company, for use in their underwater photography. As widescreen filmmaking became popular, Gottschalk saw an opportunity to provide anamorphic lenses to the film industry—first for projectors , and then for cameras. Nicholson, a friend of Moore, started working as a cameraman on early tests of anamorphic photography.
In the s, the motion picture industry was threatened by the advent of television —TV kept moviegoers at home, reducing box office revenues.
Film studios sought to lure audiences to theaters with attractions that television could not provide. These included a revival of color films , three-dimensional films , stereophonic sound , and widescreen movies. Cinerama was one of the first widescreen movie processes of the era.
Along with the logistical and financial challenges of tripling equipment usage and cost, the process led to distracting vertical lines between the three projected images. By the time the first CinemaScope movie— The Robe —was announced for production, Gottschalk, Moore and Nicholson had a demo reel of work with their anamorphic underwater system.
Panavision's first product—the Super Panatar [11] projection lens—debuted in March Panavision improved on the Super Panatar with the Ultra Panatar, a lighter design that could be screwed directly to the front of the projection lens. In December , the company created a specialized lens for film laboratories—the Micro Panatar.
When fitted to an optical printer , the Micro Panatar could create "flat" nonanamorphic prints from anamorphic negatives. This allowed films to be distributed to theaters that did not have an anamorphic system installed. To accomplish this dual platform release strategy before the Micro Panatar, studios would sometimes shoot films with one anamorphic and one spherical camera, allowing nonwidescreen theaters to exhibit the film. The cost savings of eliminating the second camera and making flat prints in post-production with the Micro Panatar were enormous.
Another innovation of the era secured Panavision's leading position: the Auto Panatar camera lens for 35 mm anamorphic productions. As the anamorphic process became more popular, it became more problematic. Panavision invented a solution: adding a rotating lens element that moved in mechanical sync with the focus ring. This eliminated the distortion and allowed for natural close-up anamorphic photography.
The Auto Panatar, released in , was rapidly adopted, eventually making CinemaScope lenses obsolete. This innovation earned Panavision the first of its 15 Academy Awards for technical achievement.
Since , Panavision had been working on a new widescreen process commissioned by MGM. The resulting system used the retooled Grandeur 65 mm film camera in conjunction with the APO Panatar lens, which was an integrated anamorphic lens as opposed to a standard prime lens with an anamorphoser mounted on it. This created a 1. In January , the posters for the 70 mm release of Disney's Sleeping Beauty carried the notation "Process lenses by Panavision" next to the Super Technirama 70 logo. By , four of Panavision's founders had left the company to pursue private careers.
As a result of this liquidation, Panavision acquired MGM's camera equipment division, as well as the rights to the Camera 65 system it had developed for MGM; the technology was renamed Ultra Panavision. The result is a 2. Although Fox insisted on maintaining CinemaScope for a time, some actors disliked the system.
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Aug 6 Science More Science. Evidence of "bone-crushing" dog found at Tennessee fossil site The university says this is the first evidence of a dog at the site that was a densely forested habitat with plants and tree-dwelling animals. There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. See also Davies et al. During the s and s, several attempts were made to establish a CALL typology. Most of these early programs still exist in modernised versions.
Since the s, it has become increasingly difficult to categorise CALL as it now extends to the use of blogs , wikis , social networking , podcasting , Web 2. Rather than focusing on the typology of CALL, they identified three historical phases of CALL, classified according to their underlying pedagogical and methodological approaches:.
At first, both could be done only through text. The computer would analyse students' input and give feedback, and more sophisticated programs would react to students' mistakes by branching to help screens and remedial activities. While such programs and their underlying pedagogy still exist today, behaviouristic approaches to language learning have been rejected by most language teachers, and the increasing sophistication of computer technology has led CALL to other possibilities.
It also allows for originality and flexibility in student output of language. The communicative approach coincided with the arrival of the PC, which made computing much more widely available and resulted in a boom in the development of software for language learning.
The first CALL software in this phase continued to provide skill practice but not in a drill format—for example: paced reading, text reconstruction and language games—but the computer remained the tutor. In this phase, computers provided context for students to use the language, such as asking for directions to a place, and programs not designed for language learning such as Sim City , Sleuth and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?
Criticisms of this approach include using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected manner for more marginal aims rather than the central aims of language teaching. It also coincided with the development of multimedia technology providing text, graphics, sound and animation as well as Computer-mediated communication CMC. CALL in this period saw a definitive shift from the use of the computer for drill and tutorial purposes the computer as a finite, authoritative base for a specific task to a medium for extending education beyond the classroom.
A basic use of CALL is in vocabulary acquisition using flashcards , which requires quite simple programs. Such programs often make use of spaced repetition , a technique whereby the learner is presented with the vocabulary items that need to be committed to memory at increasingly longer intervals until long-term retention is achieved. This has led to the development of a number of applications known as spaced repetition systems SRS , [31] including the generic Anki or SuperMemo package and programs such as BYKI [32] and phase-6, [33] which have been designed specifically for learners of foreign languages.
Above all, careful consideration must be given to pedagogy in designing CALL software, but publishers of CALL software tend to follow the latest trend, regardless of its desirability. Moreover, approaches to teaching foreign languages are constantly changing, dating back to grammar-translation , through the direct method , audio-lingualism and a variety of other approaches, to the more recent communicative approach and constructivism Decoo Designing and creating CALL software is an extremely demanding task, calling upon a range of skills.
Major CALL development projects are usually managed by a team of people:. CALL inherently supports learner autonomy , the final of the eight conditions that Egbert et al. Learner autonomy places the learner firmly in control so that he or she "decides on learning goals" Egbert et al.
It is all too easy when designing CALL software to take the comfortable route and produce a set of multiple-choice and gap-filling exercises, using a simple authoring tool Bangs , [37] but CALL is much more than this; Stepp-Greany , for example, describes the creation and management of an environment incorporating a constructivist and whole language philosophy.
According to constructivist theory, learners are active participants in tasks in which they "construct" new knowledge derived from their prior experience. Learners also assume responsibility for their learning, and the teacher is a facilitator rather than a purveyor of knowledge.
Whole language theory embraces constructivism and postulates that language learning moves from the whole to the part, rather than building sub-skills to lead towards the higher abilities of comprehension, speaking, and writing.
It also emphasises that comprehending, speaking, reading, and writing skills are interrelated, reinforcing each other in complex ways. Language acquisition is, therefore, an active process in which the learner focuses on cues and meaning and makes intelligent guesses. Additional demands are placed upon teachers working in a technological environment incorporating constructivist and whole language theories.
The development of teachers' professional skills must include new pedagogical as well as technical and management skills. Regarding the issue of teacher facilitation in such an environment, the teacher has a key role to play, but there could be a conflict between the aim to create an atmosphere for learner independence and the teacher's natural feelings of responsibility.
In order to avoid learners' negative perceptions, Stepp-Greany points out that it is especially important for the teacher to continue to address their needs, especially those of low-ability learners. Language teachers have been avid users of technology for a very long time. Gramophone records were among the first technological aids to be used by language teachers in order to present students with recordings of native speakers' voices, and broadcasts from foreign radio stations were used to make recordings on reel-to-reel tape recorders.
Other examples of technological aids that have been used in the foreign language classroom include slide projectors, film-strip projectors, film projectors, videocassette recorders and DVD players. In the early s, integrated courses which were often described as multimedia courses began to appear.
Examples of such courses are Ecouter et Parler consisting of a coursebook and tape recordings [39] and Deutsch durch die audiovisuelle Methode consisting of an illustrated coursebook, tape recordings and a film-strip — based on the Structuro-Global Audio-Visual method.
During the s and s standard microcomputers were incapable of producing sound and they had poor graphics capability. This represented a step backwards for language teachers, who by this time had become accustomed to using a range of different media in the foreign language classroom. The arrival of the multimedia computer in the early s was therefore a major breakthrough as it enabled text, images, sound and video to be combined in one device and the integration of the four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing Davies Section 1.
Following the arrival of multimedia CALL, multimedia language centres began to appear in educational institutions. While multimedia facilities offer many opportunities for language learning with the integration of text, images, sound and video, these opportunities have often not been fully utilised. One of the main promises of CALL is the ability to individualise learning but, as with the language labs that were introduced into educational institutions in the s and s, the use of the facilities of multimedia centres has often devolved into rows of students all doing the same drills Davies Section 3.
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